- Advanced abdominal pregnancy
No specific diagnostic criteria for AAP – only ~50% diagnosed preoperatively; maintain a high index of suspicion for persistent abdominal pain, displaced cervix, failed induction, oligohydramnios.
- Antenatal management of singleton pregnancies conceived using assisted reproductive technology
ART alone is NOT an indication for aspirin or a GTT – base decisions on standard risk-factor assessment only.
- Antenatal venous thromboembolism
VTE risk: 5-fold ↑ in pregnancy, 20–60-fold ↑ in first 3 months postpartum; absolute rate ~1:1000 pregnancies.
- Applications for cell-free fetal DNA testing beyond common aneuploidy
Confirm every high-chance expanded cffDNA result with amniocentesis (not CVS) — overcomes confined placental mosaicism.
- Assessment of fetal growth in twin pregnancies
Chorionicity by 11+0–13+6 weeks; scan MCDA 2-weekly from 16 wks, DCDA 4-weekly from 20 wks.
- Care in pregnancies subsequent to stillbirth or perinatal death
Prior stillbirth: pooled OR 4.8 for recurrent stillbirth (2.5% vs 0.4%) – comparable to or greater than diabetes/hypertension as a risk factor.
- COVID-19 in pregnancy
Escalate: oxygen requirement, RR ≥20/min or HR ≥110 bpm → urgent MDT (RCOG). Target sats 94–98%.
- Domestic violence
DV starts or escalates in pregnancy in one-third of cases (MBRRACE-UK); fetal mortality ~16/1000 affected pregnancies.
- Evolution in screening of Down syndrome
Maternal age alone: 30% DR at 5% FPR.
- Extreme prematurity and perinatal management
Threshold-of-viability delivery decisions require MDT consensus (neonatal + obstetric team) with fully informed parents.
- Fetal surgery for open spina bifida
MOMS trial (n=183): prenatal vs postnatal repair – VP shunt 44% vs 84%; hindbrain herniation at 12mo 64% vs 96%; independent walking at 30mo 44.8% vs 23.9%.
- Gastrointestinal congenital anomalies requiring surgery
Giant omphalocele = >5 cm diameter or >50% liver in sac – risk of pulmonary hypoplasia; consider ELCS to ↓dystocia/trauma.
- Identification and management of fetal anaemia
MCA-PSV action line for considering fetal blood sampling: 1.5 MoM for gestation.
- Imaging in pregnancy
Background fetal radiation over pregnancy ≈ 1 mGy; <50 mGy at any gestation = negligible risk – do not delay indicated imaging.
- Information sharing and communication in management of large for gestational age babies in non-diabetic mothers
No specific UK guideline for LGA in non-diabetic women — be explicit about uncertainty. NICE LGA = >95th centile; RCOG macrosomia = >4500 g.
- Management of cytomegalovirus infection in pregnancy
Take an index sample (IgM + IgG) after reported exposure; if both negative repeat at 4 weeks. Always test the stored booking sample (IgM, IgG, avidity) when index IgM is positive.
- Management of isolated abnormal amniotic fluid volume in pregnancy
Oligohydramnios: AFI ≤5 cm, SDVP <2 cm. Polyhydramnios: SDVP >8 cm or AFI ≥24 cm.
- Maternal sepsis update
Physiological changes of normal pregnancy (hyperventilation/respiratory alkalosis, vasodilatation) mimic early sepsis and delay diagnosis; pregnant women are less able to buffer sepsis-related metabolic acidosis.
- Maternal, fetal, and neonatal outcomes associated with long-term use of corticosteroids during pregnancy
Chronic maternal corticosteroid use does NOT replace a standard fluorinated ACS course if preterm delivery threatens at 24–34 weeks.
- Multifetal pregnancy reduction and selective termination
Chemical feticide (KCl) = independent chorionicity ONLY – contraindicated in monochorionic pregnancies (shared circulation risk)
- Non-immune hydrops fetalis
HF diagnosis needs ≥2 fluid compartments; organ-fluid findings (e.g. hydronephrosis, ventriculomegaly) do not count.
- Non-trophoblastic tumours of the placenta
Chorioangioma: ~1% of placentas; ‘giant’ (>4cm) in 1 in 3500–9000 births – complications mainly with tumours >4cm.
- Obstetric and perinatal outcomes in women with endometriosis
HRE = adenomyosis, ART conception, or surgically treated peritoneal/deep infiltrating endometriosis – manage in consultant-led high-risk clinic; no national/international guidance exists.
- Opioid misuse in pregnancy
NAS occurs in 55–95% of opioid-exposed infants; substitution therapy reduces but does not eliminate this risk.
- Perinatal mental health
Puerperal psychosis: 1–2/1000 births; psychiatric emergency – NICE mandates assessment within 4 hours of referral for sudden-onset psychosis.
- Pitfalls of prenatal diagnosis associated with mosaicism
Commonest cause of a retrospectively false positive NIPT result = confined placental mosaicism (CPM)
- Placenta accreta spectrum: imaging and diagnosis
Imaging is a screening tool, not a diagnostic test — never perform hysterectomy on antenatal suspicion alone.
- Placenta accreta spectrum: management update
Manage in a specialised regional PAS centre with full MDT (NHS England mandate since 2020); deliver electively around 34–36+6 weeks.
- Pre-implantation genetic testing for aneuploidy
PGT-A history: FISH/cleavage-stage biopsy (1990s–2010) was found harmful (9-RCT meta-analysis) → superseded by CCS (aCGH/qPCR/SNP/NGS) on TE biopsy, which shows benefit.
- Pregnancy in underweight women
BMI <18.5 kg/m² = underweight; NICE weight-management guidance excludes this group – paucity of evidence-based guidance.
- Prenatal genomic testing for ultrasound-detected fetal structural anomalies
FSAs affect 3–5% of pregnancies; ~50% have a genetic/chromosomal cause.
- Preventing and reducing the morbidity and mortality of preterm birth in singleton pregnancies
Ultrasound-indicated cerclage: ≥1 previous sPTB/STM + CL <25 mm before 24 weeks. History-indicated: ≥3 previous sPTB/STM. TAC: previous failed cerclage with delivery <28 weeks.
- Smoking in pregnancy
Smoker baseline carboxyhaemoglobin 4% (3–8%) vs non-smoker 1%; heavy smoker up to 15% – CO left-shifts O₂–Hb curve.
- Spontaneous preterm birth prevention in multiple pregnancy
Twins: 3× perinatal mortality vs singletons; 50% deliver <37 weeks, ~20% <34 weeks (Scotland)
- Surgical causes of acute abdominal pain in pregnancy
Fall in blood pressure is a late sign of hypovolaemic shock in pregnancy – earliest signs are mild tachycardia, tachypnoea, narrowed pulse pressure, agitation.
- Syphilis in pregnancy
Vertical transmission risk: primary 100% · early latent 40% · late latent 10%; can cross placenta from 14 weeks.
- The diagnosis and management of fetal cardiac arrhythmias
Fetal tachycardia = HR >200 bpm; bradycardia = HR <100 bpm consistently.
- The management of chronic pain in pregnancy
NSAIDs only before 28 weeks, shortest course — late use risks oligohydramnios (5×) and ductus arteriosus constriction (0.5%). Analgesic aspirin >300 mg/day in late pregnancy not advised.
- The role of antenatal corticosteroids in improving neonatal outcomes
ACS benefit is time-limited: only clear benefit if delivery occurs within 7 days of administration – accurate prediction of preterm birth risk is essential.
- Very advanced maternal age
vAMA = maternal age ≥45 years at delivery; 78% conceive via ART, 91% of these via egg donation.
- Amniocentesis and Chorionic Villus Sampling
Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling (CVS) are invasive prenatal diagnostic procedures used to obtain fetal genetic material for karyotyping, microarray, or specific gene testing.
- Antenatal Corticosteroids to Reduce Neonatal Morbidity and Mortality
A single course of maternal antenatal corticosteroids (ACS) before anticipated preterm birth is one of the most effective interventions in obstetrics for improving neonatal outcome.
- Antepartum Haemorrhage
Antepartum haemorrhage (APH) is bleeding from or into the genital tract from 24+0 weeks of gestation until birth. It complicates 3–5% of pregnancies and is a leading cause of perinatal and maternal mortality worldwide;...
- Assisted Vaginal Birth
In the UK, 10–15% of births are assisted vaginal births (AVB), rising to almost 1 in 3 nulliparous women. The guideline covers vacuum (ventouse) and forceps birth, non-rotational and rotational, and the governance...
- Birth After Previous Caesarean Birth
Women with one previous lower-segment caesarean section (LSCS) should be counselled about both planned VBAC and elective repeat caesarean section (ERCS) - VBAC success rate is approximately 72-75% overall - Planned VBAC...
- Blood Transfusions in Obstetrics
Anaemia in pregnancy: Hb <110 g/l first trimester, <105 g/l second/third trimester, <100 g/l postpartum (BCSH-aligned). - Screen at booking and 28 weeks; add an extra FBC at 20-24 weeks for multiple pregnancy.
- Breaking Bad News Stations
1. S — Setting: private room, sit at same level, tissues available, introduce yourself, ask if they want anyone with them 2. P — Perception: "What do you understand so far?" "What have you been told about your results?"...
- Care After Non-Invasive Pre-Natal Testing
Non-invasive prenatal testing (NIPT), based on analysis of cell-free fetal DNA in maternal blood, is used within the NHS Fetal Anomaly Screening Programme as a second-tier test after a higher-chance combined or...
- Care of Late Intrauterine Fetal Death and Stillbirth
Covers late intrauterine fetal death (IUFD) — death of a singleton fetus in utero after 24+0 completed weeks — and care before, during, and after birth, plus care in a future pregnancy.
- Care of Women Presenting with Suspected Preterm Prelabour Rupture of Membranes from 24+0 Weeks
Covers suspected preterm prelabour rupture of membranes (PPROM) from 24+0 to 36+6 weeks of gestation. PPROM complicates up to 3% of pregnancies and is associated with 30-40% of preterm births; it carries risk of...
- Care of Women with Obesity in Pregnancy
Maternal obesity is common in the UK obstetric population — RCOG cites 21.3% of the antenatal population as obese, with fewer than half of pregnant women (47.3%) having a BMI in the normal range.
- Cervical Cerclage
Ambiguous older terms are replaced with indication-based names: history-indicated (prophylactic, based on history, placed 11–14 weeks in asymptomatic women), ultrasound-indicated (therapeutic, for cervical shortening on...
- Chickenpox in Pregnancy
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) causes chickenpox (primary infection) and shingles (reactivation). Around 90% of UK adults are seropositive, so primary infection in pregnancy is uncommon (~3/1000 pregnancies) but carries...
- Clinical Governance and Patient Safety
Clinical governance is the system through which NHS organisations are accountable for continuously improving the quality and safety of their services. It has seven key components:
- Consent Stations
Material risk standard: disclose risks a reasonable person in the patient's position would consider significant - Doctor must also disclose risks this particular patient would find significant (based on individual...
- Diabetes in Pregnancy
Aim for HbA1c <48 mmol/mol (6.5%) before conception - Folic acid 5mg daily (from pre-conception until 12 weeks) - Review medications: stop statins, ACE inhibitors, ARBs; switch to pregnancy-safe alternatives - Retinal...
- Diagnosis and Management of Ectopic Pregnancy
Ectopic pregnancy occurs in approximately 1 in 80 pregnancies - Most common site is the ampulla of the fallopian tube (70%) - Other sites: isthmus (12%), fimbria (11%), cornual/interstitial (2-3%), ovarian (1-3%),...
- Emergency Management Stations
Always begin with structured assessment: - A — Airway: patent? obstruction? jaw thrust, suction, adjuncts - B — Breathing: rate, SpO2, chest expansion, auscultation; high-flow O2 - C — Circulation: pulse, BP, CRT, urine...
- Endometriosis: Diagnosis and Management
Endometriosis: presence of endometrial-like tissue outside the uterus - Affects approximately 10% of women of reproductive age - Common sites: ovaries (endometriomas / "chocolate cysts"), peritoneum, uterosacral...
- Epilepsy in Pregnancy
Epilepsy affects 0.5-1% of pregnancies; about 2,500 infants are born to women with epilepsy (WWE) each year in the UK. - The risk of death is increased ten-fold in pregnant WWE compared with women without epilepsy.
- Ethics and Professional Dilemmas
1. Autonomy: respect the patient's right to make informed decisions about their own care; includes right to refuse treatment 2. Beneficence: act in the patient's best interest; duty to do good 3.
- External Cephalic Version and Reducing the Incidence of Term Breech Presentation
This guideline covers external cephalic version (ECV) — manipulation of the fetus through the maternal abdomen to a cephalic presentation — as a means of preventing noncephalic presentation at delivery and reducing...
- Female Genital Mutilation and its Management
FGM refers to "all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons." It has no health benefits, is a human rights...
- Fertility Problems: Assessment and Treatment
Offer initial investigations to couples who have not conceived after 1 year of regular unprotected vaginal intercourse - If using artificial insemination, offer investigation if not conceived after 6 cycles of...
- Genital Herpes in Pregnancy: Management
Neonatal herpes is rare but carries high morbidity/mortality. Most cases (75–85%) follow direct contact with infected genital secretions at birth; fewer follow postnatal exposure or, rarely, transplacental in-utero...
- Gestational Trophoblastic Disease
Gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD) is a spectrum of disorders arising from abnormal proliferation of trophoblastic tissue, ranging from the premalignant conditions of complete and partial hydatidiform mole through...
- HIV in Pregnancy: Management
Universal antenatal HIV screening (opt-out testing, repeated for high-prevalence areas or ongoing risk) combined with effective combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) has reduced UK mother-to-child (vertical)...
- Hypertension in Pregnancy
Chronic hypertension: present before 20 weeks or pre-existing diagnosis - Gestational hypertension: new hypertension after 20 weeks without proteinuria or other features of pre-eclampsia - Pre-eclampsia: new...
- Identification and Management of Maternal Sepsis
Maternal sepsis is defined (WHO, 2017; adopted from Sepsis-3) as "a life-threatening condition resulting from organ dysfunction, resulting from infection during pregnancy, childbirth, post-abortion, or the postpartum...
- International Evidence-Based Guideline for the Assessment and Management of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)
PCOS affects approximately 1 in 8 women of reproductive age. - Diagnosis (adults) uses the Rotterdam criteria: 2 of 3 of — (1) oligo/anovulation, (2) clinical or biochemical hyperandrogenism, (3) polycystic ovarian...
- Intrahepatic Cholestasis of Pregnancy
Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy (ICP), previously termed "obstetric cholestasis," is a pregnancy-specific liver disorder characterised by pruritus and raised serum bile acids, resolving after birth.
- Malaria in Pregnancy: Prevention
Malaria in pregnancy carries substantially higher maternal and fetal risk than in non-pregnant adults — increased risk of severe disease, anaemia, miscarriage, stillbirth, preterm birth and low birth weight.
- Management of Beta Thalassaemia in Pregnancy
Thalassaemia major: women requiring more than 7 transfusion episodes/year. Thalassaemia intermedia: women requiring 7 or fewer transfusions/year, or none.
- Management of Bladder Pain Syndrome
Bladder pain syndrome (BPS) is a diagnosis of exclusion — there is no single definitive test. Two working definitions are in use:
- Management of Breech Presentation
This guideline addresses route of delivery and intrapartum technique for breech presentation at term and preterm. Antenatal care is not covered, and external cephalic version (ECV) is addressed separately in the...
- Management of Endometrial Hyperplasia
Endometrial hyperplasia is irregular proliferation of endometrial glands with an increased gland-to-stroma ratio, driven by unopposed oestrogen.
- Management of Inherited Bleeding Disorders in Pregnancy
Women with inherited bleeding disorders are at increased risk of bleeding at miscarriage, termination, invasive antenatal procedures, and delivery, and require individualised, multidisciplinary care.
- Management of Monochorionic Twin Pregnancy
Monochorionic (MC) placentation occurs in ~30% of twin pregnancies and carries near-universal vascular anastomoses connecting the two fetal circulations.
- Management of Ovarian Hyperstimulation Syndrome
OHSS is a complication of pharmacological ovarian stimulation for assisted reproductive technology (ART), driven by hCG/LH exposure of hyperstimulated ovaries, which triggers VEGF and other proinflammatory mediators.
- Management of Suspected Ovarian Masses in Premenopausal Women
In premenopausal women, almost all ovarian masses are benign. The risk of malignancy in a symptomatic cyst is approximately 1:1000, rising to 3:1000 by age 50.
- Management of Thyroid Disorders in Pregnancy
Oestrogen-driven rises in thyroxine-binding globulin, and first-trimester hCG (which weakly stimulates the TSH receptor), mean TSH falls and fT4/fT3 rise transiently in early pregnancy before returning toward...
- Maternal Collapse in Pregnancy and the Puerperium
Maternal collapse is an acute event involving the cardiorespiratory and/or central nervous systems resulting in a reduced or absent conscious level (and potentially cardiac arrest and death), at any point in pregnancy...
- NHS Cervical Screening Programme: Overview
Women and people with a cervix aged 25-64 in England. - First invitation sent at age 24.5. - Overseas visitors: eligibility follows NHS overseas visitor charging regulations, clarified in programme updates through 2026.
- NICE DG31: Non-Invasive Prenatal Testing for Chromosomal Abnormalities
Non-invasive prenatal testing (NIPT), also called cell-free DNA (cfDNA) screening, analyses fragments of placentally-derived cell-free fetal DNA circulating in maternal plasma.
- NICE NG123: Urinary Incontinence and Pelvic Organ Prolapse in Women: Management
NG123 divides urinary incontinence into three categories that determine the management pathway: stress urinary incontinence (leakage on effort/exertion), urgency urinary incontinence/overactive bladder, and mixed...
- NICE NG192: Caesarean Birth
NG192 covers the benefits and risks of caesarean birth versus vaginal birth, indications for planned caesarean birth, maternal request, procedural technique, and care before, during, and after caesarean birth, including...
- NICE NG201: Antenatal Care
Nulliparous women: plan 10 routine antenatal appointments with a midwife or doctor (recommendation 1.1.7). - Parous (multiparous) women: plan 7 routine antenatal appointments with a midwife or doctor (recommendation...
- NICE NG207: Inducing Labour
NG207 covers information and decision-making for induction of labour (IOL), the circumstances in which induction should be offered, the methods used to induce labour, methods that are not recommended, assessment and...
- NICE NG217: Epilepsies — Reproductive Health Considerations
NG217 ("Epilepsies in children, young people and adults") is an 11-section, 150+ page guideline covering diagnosis, seizure-type-specific drug choice, status epilepticus, non-pharmacological treatment, comorbidities,...
- NICE NG23: Menopause: Diagnosis and Management
In women aged 45 and over, identify perimenopause or menopause on the basis of symptoms alone, without laboratory tests, if they have vasomotor symptoms that have recently started together with a change in their...
- NICE NG25: Preterm Labour and Birth
Short cervix threshold for offering vaginal progesterone or cerclage: TVUS cervical length ≤25 mm, measured at 16+0–24+0 weeks. - Diagnostic cervical length cut-off in symptomatic women ≥30+0 weeks: ≤15 mm = diagnosed...
- NICE NG73: Endometriosis: Diagnosis and Management
NG73 covers the identification, investigation, and management of endometriosis in women and people presenting with suggestive symptoms, including organisation of care, referral pathways, and treatment options through...
- NICE NG88: Heavy Menstrual Bleeding: Assessment and Management
Take a history covering the nature of the bleeding, associated symptoms (e.g. pain, pressure symptoms, intermenstrual or postcoital bleeding), impact on quality of life, and other factors that may affect treatment...
- Obtaining Valid Consent in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
Supreme Court ruling that fundamentally changed consent law in the UK - Replaced the Bolam test (what a reasonable body of doctors would disclose) with a patient-centred standard - Doctors must disclose any material...
- Outpatient Hysteroscopy
Outpatient hysteroscopy (OPH) allows direct visualisation of the uterine cavity using miniaturised endoscopic equipment without intravenous sedation or general/regional anaesthesia in a formal theatre.
- Ovarian Cysts in Postmenopausal Women
Ovarian cysts are increasingly detected in postmenopausal women due to wider use of pelvic imaging. Reported incidence is roughly 5–17%.
- Placenta Praevia and Placenta Accreta Spectrum
Low-lying placenta: placental edge within 20mm of the internal cervical os but not covering it - Placenta praevia: placenta partially or completely covers the internal cervical os - Minor praevia: leading edge in the...
- Post-Hysterectomy Vaginal Vault Prolapse
Post-hysterectomy vaginal vault prolapse (PHVP) is descent of the apex of the vagina (the vaginal vault, or cuff scar after hysterectomy) — corresponding to point C on the Pelvic Organ Prolapse Quantification (POP-Q)...
- Pregnancy and Breast Cancer
Breast cancer complicates roughly 1 in 3,000 pregnancies and is the most common cancer diagnosed in pregnancy. Pregnancy-associated breast cancer occurs in a younger population and is more often high-grade or...
- Premenstrual Syndrome: Management
PMS is defined as distressing physical, behavioural and psychological symptoms, in the absence of organic or underlying psychiatric disease, that regularly recur during the luteal phase of each menstrual cycle and...
- Preterm Labour and Birth
Preterm birth: delivery before 37+0 weeks gestation - Very preterm: before 32 weeks - Extremely preterm: before 28 weeks - Late preterm: 34-36+6 weeks - Preterm birth affects approximately 7-8% of pregnancies in the UK...
- Preventing Entry-Related Gynaecological Laparoscopic Injuries
Around 250,000 women undergo laparoscopic surgery in the UK annually. Most have no problems, but serious complications occur in roughly 1/1000 cases.
- Prevention and Management of Postpartum Haemorrhage
Primary PPH: blood loss from the genital tract of 500ml or more within 24 hours of delivery - Minor PPH: 500-1000ml - Major PPH: >1000ml (moderate 1000-2000ml, severe >2000ml) - Massive PPH: >2000ml or rate of loss...
- Prevention of Early-Onset Group B Streptococcal Disease
Group B Streptococcus (GBS, *Streptococcus agalactiae*) colonises the bowel and genital tract of 20–40% of adults. Carriage in pregnancy is usually asymptomatic and intermittent.
- Recurrent Miscarriage
Recurrent miscarriage is defined as three or more first-trimester miscarriages, consistent with previous RCOG editions. Clinicians are encouraged to use clinical discretion and offer extensive evaluation after two...
- Reduced Fetal Movements
Reduced fetal movements (RFM) is a common presenting complaint in the third trimester and one of the few maternally-reported warning signs of a fetus in jeopardy.
- Reducing the Risk of Venous Thromboembolism during Pregnancy and the Puerperium
VTE remains a leading direct cause of maternal death in the UK - All women should undergo documented VTE risk assessment at booking, on admission, and postnatally - Thromboprophylaxis with LMWH is first-line when...
- Shoulder Dystocia
Shoulder dystocia is a vaginal cephalic delivery that requires additional obstetric manoeuvres to deliver the fetal shoulders after gentle downward traction has failed - The anterior shoulder impacts behind the maternal...
- Small-for-Gestational-Age Fetus and a Growth Restricted Fetus, Investigation and Care
Small-for-gestational-age (SGA): estimated fetal weight (EFW) or abdominal circumference (AC) below the 10th centile for gestational age. Severe SGA: below the 3rd centile.
- The Diagnosis and Treatment of Malaria in Pregnancy
Malaria has no pathognomonic signs and can mimic a flu-like illness, so a travel history is essential in any pregnant woman with pyrexia of unknown origin. Misdiagnosis is a leading cause of preventable malaria death.
- The Initial Management of Chronic Pelvic Pain
Chronic pelvic pain (CPP) is intermittent or constant pain in the lower abdomen or pelvis of at least 6 months' duration, not occurring exclusively with menstruation or intercourse, and not associated with pregnancy.
- The Management of Nausea and Vomiting of Pregnancy and Hyperemesis Gravidarum
NVP (nausea and vomiting of pregnancy): diagnosed when onset is before 16 weeks' gestation and other causes have been excluded. Affects up to 90% of pregnant women; typically starts weeks 4-7, peaks around week 9,...
- Third- and Fourth-degree Perineal Tears, Management
Obstetric anal sphincter injuries (OASIS) encompass third- and fourth-degree tears.
- Thrombosis and Embolism during Pregnancy and the Puerperium: Acute Management
This guideline addresses the immediate investigation and treatment of suspected acute VTE (DVT or PE) in pregnancy and the puerperium. Risk-based prevention is covered separately in GTG No. 37a (thromboprophylaxis).
- Twin and Triplet Pregnancy
Must be determined at 11-13+6 week dating scan — most accurate time - DCDA (dichorionic diamniotic): two placentae, two amniotic sacs — "lambda/twin peak sign" - MCDA (monochorionic diamniotic): one placenta, two...
- Umbilical Cord Prolapse
Cord prolapse is descent of the umbilical cord through the cervix, alongside (occult) or past (overt) the presenting part, with ruptured membranes. Reported incidence is approximately 1 in 500 pregnancies.
- Vasa Praevia: Diagnosis and Management
Vasa praevia occurs when fetal blood vessels run through the free membranes, unsupported by placental tissue or Wharton's jelly of the umbilical cord, and cross or run near the internal cervical os below the presenting...